Physico-Chemical Quality of Bottled Drinking Water Sold in Zomba City, Malawi
Total Views: 2090
| 
Total Downloads: 167
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.33102/mjosht.v9i2.354Keywords:
Bottled water:, Physico-chemical;, ZombaAbstract
The quality of drinking water is a key priority from a human health perspective. The present study was conducted to assess the physico-chemical quality of bottled drinking water marketed in Zomba City, Malawi. Seven bottled water brands were analyzed for pH, EC, TDS, K, Na, Ca, Mg, NO3-, F-, Cl- and total water hardness using standard methods. The results of the analysis were compared with Malawi Standard (MS) 560 for natural mineral water, MS 699 for bottled water other than natural mineral water, and the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines for drinking water. The results showed that EC, TDS, Cl-, NO3-, F-, K, Na, Ca, and Mg in all the bottled water brands complied with MS 560, MS 699, and WHO guidelines for drinking water. Further, four bottled water brands had their mean pH below the minimum MS 560 and MS 699 value of 6.5. Comparison of the analyzed water quality parameters with the reported label values showed considerable variation in both exaggeration and undervaluing. This study has also shown that all brands had low fluoride content as compared to recommended levels by MS 560 and MS 699. The paper suggests the need for strict monitoring to check bottled water quality compliance.
Downloads
References
Cook, C., & Bakker, K. (2012). "Water Security: Debating an Emerging Paradigm." Global Environmental Change 22, no. 1: 94-102.
Fiebelkorn, A.P., B. Person, R.E. Quick, S.M. Vindigni, M. Jhung, A. Bowen, and P.L. Riley. (2012). "Systematic Review of Behavior Change Research on Point-of-Use Water Treatment Interventions in Countries Categorized as Low- to Medium-Development on the Human Development Index." Social Science & Medicine 75, no. 4: 622-633.
Cidu, R., F. Frau, and P. Tore. (2011). "Drinking Water Quality: Comparing Inorganic Components in Bottled Water and Italian Tap Water." Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 24, no. 2: 184-193.
Wolde, A.M., K. Jemal, G.M. Woldearegay, and K.D. Tullu. (2020). "Quality and Safety of Municipal Drinking Water in Addis Ababa City, Ethiopia." Environmental Health and Preventive Medicine 25, no. 1.
WHO and UNICEF. (2017). "Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines." Geneva, Switzerland.
The Malawi Growth and Development Strategy (MGDS) III (2017-2022). "Building a Productive, Competitive, and Resilient Nation."
Mkwate, R.C., R.C.G. Chidya, and E.M.M. Wanda. (2016). "Assessment of Drinking Water Quality and Rural Household Water Treatment in Balaka District, Malawi." Physics and Chemistry of the Earth.
Pourfadakari, S., S. Doboradaran, G.E. De-la-Torre, A. Mohammadi, R. Saeedi, and J. Spitz. (2022). "Evaluation of Occurrence of Organic, Inorganic, and Microbial Contaminants in Bottled Drinking Water and Comparison with International Guidelines: A Worldwide Review." Environment Science and Pollution Research 29, no. 37: 55400-55414.
Daniele, L., C. Cannatelli, J.T. Buscher, and G. Bonatici. (2019). "Chemical Composition of Chilean Bottled Waters: Anomalous Values and Possible Effects on Human Health." Science of The Total Environment 689: 526-533.
Kankanige, D., & S. Babel. (2020). "Smaller-sized Micro-plastics (MPs) Contamination in Single-use PET-bottled Water in Thailand." Science of The Total Environment 717: 137232.
Das, G., V. Tirth, S. Arora, A. Algahtani, M. Kafeel, A. H. G. Alqarni, and A. U. Rehman. (2020). "Effect of Fluoride Concentration in Drinking Water on Dental Fluorosis in Southwest Saudi Arabia." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 11: 3914.
Ikem, A., S. Odueyungbo, N.O. Egiebor, and K. Nyavor. (2002). "Chemical Quality of Bottled Waters from Three Cities in Eastern Alaba." Science of the Total Environment 285, no. 1-3: 165-175.
Güler, C., & M. Alpaslan. (2009). "Mineral Content of 70 Bottled Water Brands Sold on the Turkish Market: Assessment of Their Compliance with Current Regulations." Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 22, no. 7-8: 728-737.
Kermanshahi, Y.K., R. Tabaraki, H. Karimi, M. Nikorazm, and S. Abbasi. (2010). "Classification of Iranian Bottled Waters as Indicated by Manufacturer’s Labellings." Food Chemistry 120, no. 4: 1218-1223.
Dippong, T., M.-A. Hoaghia, C. Mihali, E. Cical, and M. Calugaru. (2020). "Human Health Risk Assessment of Some Bottled Waters from Romania." Environmental Pollution 115409.
Nazir, M. A., A. Yasar, M. A. Bashir, S. H. Siyal, T. Najam, M. S. Javed, et al. (2020). "Quality Assessment of the Noncarbonated-bottled Drinking Water: Comparison of Their Treatment Techniques." International Journal of Environmental Analytical Chemistry, 1–12.
Geerts, R., F. Vandermoere, T. Van Winckel, D. Halet, P. Joos, K. Van Den Steen, et al. (2020). "Bottle or Tap? Toward an Integrated Approach to Water Type Consumption." Water Research 115578.
El Mir, Z., N. El Osta, M. Salameh, R. Massoud, L. El Haddad, and N.F. Mchayel. (2020). "Assessment of Caries Index and Fluoride Intake in a Pediatric Middle Eastern Population." Journal of Contemporary Dental Practice 21, no. 10: 1098-1104.
Reddy, A., D.F. Norris, S.S. Momeni, B. Waldo, and J.D. Ruby. (2016). "The pH of Beverages in the United States." The Journal of the American Dental Association 147, no. 4: 255-263.
Fard, E.S., S. Doboradaran, and R. Hayati. (2015). "Chemical, Microbial and Physical Evaluation of Commercial Bottled Drinking Water Available in Bushehr City, Iran." Fresenius Environmental Bulletin 24, no. 11: 3836-3841.
Chidya, R.C.G., L. Singano, I. Chitedze, and K. Mourad. (2019). "Standards Compliance and Health Implications of Bottled Water in Malawi." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 6: 951.
Zomba City Council. (2009). "Zomba District Socio-economic Profile 2009-2012."
MBS. (2002). "Water Quality-Sampling Part 1-Guidance on the Design of Sampling Programmes and Sampling Techniques. MS 682-1." Malawi Bureau of Standards (MBS): Malawi, Blantyre.
MBS. (2002). "Water Quality-Sampling. Part 1-Guidance on the Preservation and Handling of Water Samples; MS 682-3." Malawi Standards Board; Malawi Bureau of Standards (MBS): Malawi, Blantyre.
APHA. (2005). "Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater." American Public Health Association (APHA), American Water Works Association (AWWA), Water Environment Federation (WEF): Washington, DC, USA.
Crittenden, Crittenden, J.C., & Harza, B.M.W. (2005). Water Treatment: Principles and Design. Wiley: New York, NY, USA.
Lenntech. (2007). "Water Hardness."
MBS. (2004). "Natural Mineral Waters-Specifications; MS 560:2004. ICS 67.160.20." Malawi Bureau of Standards (MBS); Blantyre, Malawi.
MBS. (2004). "Bottled Drinking Waters Other Than Natural Mineral Water-Specifications; MS 699:2004. ICS 67.160.20." Malawi Standards (COMESA Harmonized); Malawi Bureau of Standards (MBS); Blantyre, Malawi.
Harper, R.A., R.M. Shelton, E. Salvati, C. Besnard, A.K. Korsuncky, & G. Landini. (2021). "Acid-induced Demineralization of Human Enamel as a Function of Time and pH Observed Using X-ray and Polarized Light Imaging." Acta Biomaterialia 120: 240-248.
Surmont, P.A., & L.C. Martens. (1989). "Root Surface Caries: An Update." Clinical Preventive Dentistry 11 (3): 14-20.
Schmidt, J., & B. Huang. (2022). "The pH of Bottled Waters Commercially Available in Australia and Its Implications for Oral Health." Journal of Water and Health 20 (5): 871.
Mihayo, I.Z., & S.L. Mkoma. (2012). "Chemical Water Quality of Bottled Drinking Water Brands Marketed in Mwanza City, Tanzania." Research Journal of Chemical Sciences 2, Issue 7.
Chiarenzelli, J., & C. Pominville. (2008). "Bottled Water Selection and Health Considerations from Multi-element Analysis of Products Sold in New York State." Journal of Water and Health 6(4): 505-517.
Kulmann, M.S.S., L.O.S. Stefanello, R.A. Schwalbert, et al. (2021). "Effects of Phosphorus Fertilizer Application on Phosphorus Fractions in Different Organs of Cordia trichotoma." Journal of Forestry Research 32(2): 725-732.
Liao, C., Q. Tian, & F. Liu. (2021). "Nitrogen Availability Regulates Deep Soil Priming Effect by Changing Microbial Metabolic Efficiency in a Subtropical Forest." Journal of Forestry Research 32: 713-723.
WHO. (2017). Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, 4th ed.; Incorporating the First Addendum. World Health Organization (WHO): Geneva, Switzerland.
Uddin, M.R., R.H. Bhuyain, M.E. Ali, & M.A. Ahsan. (2019). "Pollution and Ecological Risk Evaluation for the Environmental Impact on Karnaphuli River, Bangladesh." International Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Research 4: 38-48.
Deng, L., B. Xu, X. Yang, & A. Hu. (2021). "Water Quality and Health Risk Assessment Based on Hydrochemical Characteristics of Tap and Large-Size Bottled Water from the Main Cities and Towns in Guanzhong Basin, China." Environmental Earth Sciences 80(4).
Taiwo, A.M., A.M. Gbadebo, & J.A. Awomeso. (2010). "Potability Assessment of Selected Brands of Bottled Water in Abeokuta, Nigeria." Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management 14 (3): 47-52.
He, X., & P. Li. (2020). "Surface Water Pollution in the Middle Chinese Loess Plateau with Special Focus on Hexavalent Chromium (Cr6+): Occurrence, Sources and Health Risks." Exposure and Health.
Mahajan, R.K., T.P.S. Walia, B.S. Lark, & Sumanjit. (2006). "Analysis of Physical and Chemical Parameters of Bottled Drinking Water." International Journal of Environmental Health Research 16(2): 89-98.
Gautam, B. (2020). "Chemical Evaluation of Trace Elements in Bottled Water." Journal of Healthcare Engineering, Volume 2020, Article ID 8884700.
Beers, M., & R. Berkow. (1997). Water and Sodium Metabolism. USA: The Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy, Sect. 12, Chap. 12.
Najah, Z. M., B.A. Salem, & N.M. Aburas. (2021). "Analysis of Some Bottled Drinking Water Samples Available in Alkoms City." Journal of Academic Research (Applied Sciences), VOL.17.
Ahmad, M., & A.S. Bajahlan. (2008). "Quality Comparison of Tap Water vs. Bottled Water in the Industrial City of Yanbu (Saudi Arabia)." Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 159(1-4): 1-14.
Loloei, M., & F. Zolala. (2011). "Survey on the Quality of Mineral Water Bottled Waters in Kerman City in 2009." Journal of Rafsenjan University of Medical Sciences 10: 183-192.
Consumer Research. (1991). "How Good Is Bottled Water?" Consumer Research: 10-15.
Brika, B., E.D.-I.G. Eduardo, & E. Alturki. (2022). "Chemical Composition of Selected Brands of Bottled Water Commercialized in Tripoli, Libya." Environ. Sci. Proc. 21: 48.
Naddeo, V., T. Zarra, & V. Belgiorno. (2008). "A Comparative Approach to the Variation of Natural Elements in Italian Bottled Waters According to the National and International Standard Limits." Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 21(6): 505-514.
Abdullah, M.H., L. Ying, A.Z. Aris, & J.H. Park. (2007). "Water Chemistry in Downstream Region of Tuaran River: A Preliminary Assessment on Seawater Intrusion Due to Sea Level Rise." In: Park, J.H., Inam, E., Kim, K.W. (eds). Proceedings of the 1st International Workshop on Climate Change Impacts on Surface Water Quality in East Asian Watersheds, Chuncheon, Korea, pp 100-104.
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
Copyright (c) 2023 Peter Joseph Chimtali, Kizito Steven Ngumbira, Timothy Tywel Mguntha
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
The copyright of this article will be vested to author(s) and granted the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) license, unless otherwise stated.
